From the Jōmon to the Heian Period, relations between Japan and China underwent great change politically, religiously, and commercially. Initially, during the Jomōn Period, Japan was largely insular, and there was little contact between Japan and China. However, by the late Yayoi and early Kofun Period, the Kingdom of Yamatai had effectively subordinated itself to China in a kind of a tributary relationship. This relationship was, in a way, symbiotic in that Japanese rulers received political legitimacy from Chinese backing, in exchange for Japanese subordination to Chinese dynastic rule. We have therefore included in our exhibition a Chinese mirror that was brought to Japan from China, and which represents the Chinese recognition of power that Japanese leaders sought after. By the Asuka Period, official diplomatic relations between China and Japan had intensified. Under the reign of Empress Suiko and the regency of Prince Shōtoku, the Japanese court sent students to China on kenzuishi missions, where they gained great knowledge of Chinese culture and Buddhism. When they returned, they played a critical role in transmitting Sinitic culture to Japan, which ultimately brought about the centralization of Japan, as well as a more rapid spread of Buddhism. Prince Shōtoku, a regent, sent these students to Sui China, and was a royal patron of Buddhism. Thus, we have included the Shaka Triad, a sculpture of the Buddha and two attendant bodhisattvas, which was commissioned by Prince Shōtoku. This sculpture is highly Sinitic in style, and contains Chinese writing, which is suggestive of China’s strong influence on Japan at this time. During the Nara Period, Chinese influence was extremely potent, and when the capital moved to Nara, this was clear. Nara was a Chinese-style city, and its palace, Heijō Palace, resembled Chinese palaces at the time. In our exhibition, we have included the reconstructed Suzakumon (the Red Bird Gate) from the Heijō Palace. In the capital moving to Nara, Chinese ideas of the state are very evident. This new capital served as a center for Chinese culture in Japan. However, by the ninth century, official diplomatic relations with China had ceased. Instead, an era of commercial exchange between Japan and China had begun, one that was independent of diplomatic efforts. Hakata Bay in Northern Kyushu served as a “gateway” to the continent in that it was the prime location for Chinese merchant vessels to enter Japan. Our exhibition therefore includes the excavation site and ruins of the Kōrokan, which was a guesthouse in Hakata Bay where Chinese merchants bought and sold goods. Though diplomatic relations had ceased, the Japanese court still supervised these commercial interactions and ensured their monopoly on access to Chinese goods. By the medieval period, relations between Japan and the new Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty in China had worsened, culminating in military conflict. In 1274, and again in 1281, the Mongols of the Yuan Dynasty invaded Japan via Hakata Bay. The Japanese, with great struggle, repelled both attacks. We have therefore included a section of the Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba handscroll, which depicts Japanese samurai attacking Mongol ships in 1281. Also, during the medieval period, Japanese piracy of Chinese ships and shores was at its peak. Japanese pirates, or wokou, were very active in plundering until the late sixteenth century. Thus, in our exhibition is a painting of Japanese pirates in conflict with Chinese sailors. Piracy weakened relations between China and Japan greatly during the medieval period. By the early modern period, relations between China and Japan had again deteriorated. Under the authority of Toyotomi Hideoyoshi, Japanese forces invaded Korea with the intention to use Korea as a pathway to eventually invade Ming China. The Japanese were defeated by Korean forces with the help of the Chinese, but they invaded a second time in 1597, resulting in a second defeat. Therefore, we have included in our exhibition a painted scroll which depicts the Japanese invasion of Korea. Particularly, it shows Japanese forces attacking Busan during the first battle of the war, which the Japanese won. Lastly, in the early modern period, the Sakoku edicts restricted foreign trade to Nagasaki, and allowed only the Dutch, Koreans, and Chinese to have limited access, with Chinese ships trading from Qing China under strict regulation. This was the culmination of the trend toward isolationism in Japan. Because of this, we have included an artwork which depicts Chinese trading ships taking advantage of their exclusive access to Nagasaki during Japan’s isolationist period.
(written by Andreas Kartsounis and Morenel Castro)
Mirror with Triangular Rim, Design of Dragon and Tiger
Tokyo National Museum: https://www.tnm.jp/modules/r_exhibition/index.php?controller=item&id=7081&lang=en
This mirror, which dates to the mid-Kofun Period, was found in a Japanese keyhole-shaped tumulus in Osaka. It is made of bronze and has a triangular rim. The mirror is decorated with three concentric rings. Depicted on the innermost ring are a dragon and a tiger, which are elements of Chinese philosophy. This artifact is representative of a critical transformation of relations between Japan and China because, by the later Yayoi Period and the early Kofun Period, the Kingdom of Yamatai been grafted into tributary relations with Chinese emperors, as opposed to the more insular Japan of the Jōmon Period. Under this system, Japanese leaders were effectively subordinate to Chinese dynasties in exchange for political backing. Envoys from Wa, such as those sent by Queen Himiko, had arrived in China on diplomatic missions. Oftentimes, they returned to Japan bearing Chinese luxuries, like this mirror. Such mirrors—mirrors of Chinese origin—were often found in the large burial mounds that defined the Kofun Period. Japanese rulers and elites were likely interested in these mirrors, and were buried with them, because Chinese items were strong marks of political legitimacy and reinforced rule. In times of chaotic and shifting Japanese leadership, the imprimatur of a Chinese emperor, which was often delivered via these mirrors, was a potent force in legitimizing one’s authority. Thus, this mirror is demonstrative of a new openness on the part of Japanese rulers to align themselves with Chinese leadership in the Kofun Period.
(written by Andreas Kartsounis)
Friday, Karl F., ed. Japan Emerging: Premodern History to 1850. Westview Press, 2012. (2018 paperback)
“Political Maturation and the Creation of Symbols of Authority.” Tokyo National Museum. Accessed October 28, 2024. https://www.tnm.jp/modules/r_exhibition/index.php?controller=item&id=7081&lang=en.
Shaka Triad
The Shaka Triad is a sculpture of the Buddha and two bodhisattvas located in Hōryū-ji. On its back, there is an inscription indicating its date of origin, 623, and its sculptor, Tori Busshi. It was commissioned by Prince Shōtoku as a means to gain the Buddhist concept of merit via royal patronage and to reach enlightenment. This sculpture is representative of the rule of Empress Suiko and the regency of Prince Shōtoku, which was a period of significant religious and political growth due, largely, to Japan’s changing relations with China. During the Suiko reign, the Japanese court under Prince Shōtoku dispatched students to China on diplomatic missions, or kenzuishi, during which they learned about Chinese civilization. Upon return to Japan, these students, now well-versed and steeped in Chinese culture, were critical in centralizing Japan, but they also brought Buddhist images and teachings back with them. Buddhist monks, too, brought Chinese culture with them to Japan. Prince Shōtoku was a Buddhist, and his royal patronage of Buddhism, including the Shaka Triad, was critical to its spread in Japan. Tori Busshi, the sculptor of the Shaka Triad, was known for his Sinitic style, and his parents were from China. Moreover, his inscription is written in Chinese script, further demonstrating China’s influence on Japan at this time. The Suiko reign was, in large part, when Japan began to model its government in the Chinese style. Thus, this relationship in which Japan would send students to China was instrumental to both political and religious growth in Japan.
(written by Andreas Kartsounis)
Friday, Karl F., ed. Japan Emerging: Premodern History to 1850. Westview Press, 2012. (2018 paperback)
“Shaka (Sakyamuni) Triad.” Hōryū-ji. Accessed October 28, 2024. https://www.horyuji.or.jp/en/garan/kondo/detail/#:~:text=Shaka%20(Sakyamuni)%20triad,enlightenment%20in%20the%20Pure%20Land.
Kōrokan
Fukuoka City Official Tourist Guide: https://gofukuoka.jp/spots/detail/27133
The Kōrokan, a guest house located on the shore of Hakata bay, was the official supervisor of selling and trading goods, like spices, medicines, and books. In classical Japan, especially during the Heian Period, the Kōrokan played a crucial role in creating and fostering an intricate relationship between China and Japan. By this time, diplomatic relations between China and Japan had ceased, but a purely commercial relationship had emerged. These buildings served as the main venue for international commercial exchange in Japan. Chinese merchants began to arrive en masse at Hakata Bay during this time, and Hakata Bay eventually became the so-called “gateway” to China. When diplomats and students stopped going to China, merchants effectively assumed their role of bringing goods from China back to Japan. Although commerce was no longer tied to diplomacy by this point, the Japanese court still supervised trade and retained a monopoly on goods from China. These were not private trades, therefore. The Kōrokan was essential to cultural exchange, in addition to mere commercial exchange. They provided platforms for the popularization of Chinese literature, art, and philosophical concepts, enabling Japanese authorities and academics to interact with and modify Chinese knowledge. Japan developed a more complex cultural identity that incorporated Chinese culture as a result of this connection, which had a large impact on the country’s political institutions, educational programs, and artistic representations. The Kōrokan houses were flourishing hubs of trade and culture, and were essential to Japan’s development and assimilation of Chinese influences. This image shows the excavation of a Kōrokan guest house, as well as a recreated guest house.
(written by Morenel Castro)
Fukuoka City Official Tourist Guide: https://gofukuoka.jp/spots/detail/27133
“Korokan Historical Museum.” Fukuoka City Official Tourist Guide. Accessed October 28, 2024. https://gofukuoka.jp/spots/detail/27133.
Kōrokan: A guesthouse for ancient diplomacy is revealed in its entirety. Accessed October 28, 2024. https://archaeology.jp/sites/korokan/index.html.
The Suzakumon
Nara Travelers Guide: https://narashikanko.or.jp/en/spot/world_heritage/suzakumon/
China had a major cultural and architectural effect on Japan during the Nara period, which was most noticeable in Heijō Palace in modern-day Nara. In the late seventh century and the early eighth century, the capital of Japan moved close to, and eventually into, Nara. Nara was fixed on a north-south axis, and Heijō Palace sat in the north of the city. The Suzakumon was the main entrance to this new palace in Nara. Like Fujiwara-kyō, the former capital, Nara was very similar to Chinese cities. In particular, it resembled Changan, the capital of Tang China. This resulted from Japan’s attempts to consolidate authority and establish an advanced imperial capital like in Tang China. The Nara political ideology, thus, was based on Buddhist ideas and Chinese philosophy. For example, Sinitic conceptions of the proper conduct of the state were stressed. Chinese industrial structure was used to design the Heijō Palace. The palace complex itself included dougong roof structures, halls, and imposing gates that resembled traditional Chinese architectural forms. The aim for majesty and stability in government can be seen in the use of timber building techniques and the integration of Chinese architectural concepts. Also, Heijō Palace was a center of culture where Chinese philosophy, religion, and art flourished, in addition to being the imperial palace. Chinese-style gardens and Buddhist temples were incorporated into the city, encouraging the sharing of practices and ideas. In order to fortify Japan’s government system and cultural identity, Chinese patterns were purposefully adopted during this time, setting the stage for later advancements in Japanese architecture and society. Japan successfully integrated Chinese ideas through Heijō Palace.
(written by Morenel Castro)
Friday, Karl F., ed. Japan Emerging: Premodern History to 1850. Westview Press, 2012. (2018 paperback)
“Suzakumon.” Nara Travelers Guide. Accessed October 28, 2024. https://narashikanko.or.jp/en/spot/world_heritage/suzakumon/.
Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba
World History Encyclopedia: https://www.worldhistory.org/image/10980/japanese-samurai-attack-mongol-ships/
Kublai Khan, the ruler of the Mongol Empire, had imperial ambitions and sought to take control of all of East Asia. To do so, he needed to defeat the existing Song Dynasty, leading to a Mongol invasion of China. Though he had not completely destroyed the Song Dynasty, Kublai Khan established the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty in China in 1271. Once he had completed his war with the Song, he turned his attention toward the Kamakura Shogunate in Japan. Kublai Khan dispatched envoys to Dazaifu bearing a threatening letter urging Japan to subordinate themselves to the Yuan Dynasty. In 1274, armies from the Yuan Dynasty invaded Japan via Hakata Bay. Despite a number of small Mongol victories, Japan eventually repelled the Chinese (Mongol) forces. After his defeat, Kublai Khan dispatched more envoys, but to no avail. Therefore, in 1281, the Yuan Dynasty again attacked Japan via Hakata Bay. The Japanese again repelled the invading forces. This image is from Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba, or Illustrated Account of the Mongol Invasion, which is a handscroll depicting the Chinese (Mongol) invasions of Japan. It was commissioned in 1293 by Takezaki Suenaga, a samurai who had fought in the two battles. More specifically, this image is a section of the handscroll depicting Japanese samurai attacking the Mongol invaders during the second invasion of Hakata Bay in 1281. The samurai are in a much smaller vessel, yet they succeed nonetheless, reflecting the Japanese belief that the gods had assisted them in defeating the Mongols. This handscroll is demonstrative of the violent relations between China and Japan during the early medieval period.
(written by Andreas Kartsounis)
Friday, Karl F., ed. Japan Emerging: Premodern History to 1850. Westview Press, 2012. (2018 paperback)
“Japanese Samurai Attack Mongol Ships.” World History Encyclopedia. Accessed November 18, 2024. https://www.worldhistory.org/image/10980/japanese-samurai-attack-mongol-ships/
Naval Battle Between Japanese Pirates and Chinese
Rijksmuseum: https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/AK-RAK-1991-11-F
During the medieval period, Japanese piracy of Chinese ships and shores was extremely common. It posed a great threat to the coastline of China, disrupted trade, and undermined the authority of the Chinese Ming Dynasty. These Japanese pirates, or wokou, often engaged Chinese ships in naval battles, and were largely successful. They used small, fast, and maneuverable vessels, allowing them to defeat Chinese sailors. However, they also laid siege on the Chinese coastline, attacking places like Ningbo and Quanzho in China frequently. Most commonly, the wokou looted goods or captured people for purposes of ransom and slavery. These pirates did significant damage to relations between China and Japan during this era. By the late sixteenth century, however, their activity was greatly reduced. This painting depicts Japanese pirates attacking a Chinese ship. The pirates are armed with spears and bows, and are dressed in robes. It is, for the most part, unclear who is winning the battle depicted in the painting, but the pirates are in a much smaller ship. It was painted in the early eighteenth century by an unknown artist, but demonstrates clearly that piracy was a major point of tension in relations between Japan and China in the preceding medieval period.
(written by Morenel Castro)
“A Naval Battle Between Japanese Pirates and Chinese.” Rijksmuseum. Accessed November 26, 2024. https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/AK-RAK-1991-11-F
“Wakō.” Britannica. Accessed November 26, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/topic/wako.
Defence of Busanjin Fortress, Imjin Wars
World History Encyclopedia: https://www.worldhistory.org/image/10905/defence-of-busanjin-fortress-imjin-wars/
The Imjin War, during which the Japanese invaded Korea, was a very important conflict in the history of relations between China and Japan. Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the second great unifier of Japan, sought to conquer Ming China by using Korea as a sort of staging area or pathway for his troops. Thus, in 1592, he sent forces to move through Korea, but Korea denied passage to Japanese forces. As a result, war broke out, and Japan ultimately conquered much of the Korean peninsula. However, Chinese reinforcements helped Korean troops to expel the Japanese. Japan invaded Korea a second time in 1597, but was forced to leave the peninsula once again in 1598, largely because of Hideyoshi’s death. The conflict strained relations between China and Japan greatly, and was the second great military conflict between the two countries. This painted scroll, which was produced in the eighteenth century, depicts the defense of Busanjin Fortress, which was the first battle of the war. In the image, Japanese forces are seen landing at Busan in Korea, and laying siege on Busanjin Fortress. The fortress is heavily defended by the Koreans, who would not allow the Japanese to attack China via Korea. This was the first engagement of the war, taking place in 1592, and the Japanese eventually prevailed.
(written by Morenel Castro)
“The Japanese Invasion of Korea, 1592-8 CE.” World History Encyclopedia. Accessed December 12, 2024. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1398/the-japanese-invasion-of-korea-1592-8-ce/
“Defence of Busanjin Fortress, Imjin Wars.” World History Encyclopedia. Accessed December 12, 2024. https://www.worldhistory.org/image/10905/defence-of-busanjin-fortress-imjin-wars/
Chinese Ships at Nagasaki
The Met: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/77014
From 1633 to 1639, continuing Japan’s trend toward isolationism, the Sakoku edicts barred most external influence from the country. In total, there were seventeen decrees that did a number of things to reduce foreign presence in Japan. First, Japanese people were prohibited from leaving Japan, and Christianity was banned. Then, Nagasaki was made to be a port through which the shogunate could control trade directly. Lastly, finalizing the process of isolationism, the Portuguese and others Europeans—excluding the Dutch, who were made to trade in Deshima—were expelled from Japan. From this time onward, only the Dutch, the Koreans, and the Chinese could trade with Japan, but it had to be through the port of Nagasaki (or the island of Deshima for the Dutch). This restricted trade lasted until 1853, when Commodore Perry arrived and forcibly opened the port to foreigners. Thus, these Sakoku edicts largely ended the free trade of the medieval period. This artwork was produced by an unknown Japanese artist around the year 1840 during the Tokugawa period. It depicts two ships sailing into the port of Nagasaki. The inscription on the left side of the artwork identifies the ships as being Chinese trading ships sailing from Qing, China. Considering the above information, these Chinese ships are likely taking advantage of their ability to trade with Japan via the port of Nagasaki, which was the only port they could enter during Japan’s time of isolation.
(written by Andreas Kartsounis)
Friday, Karl F., ed. Japan Emerging: Premodern History to 1850. Westview Press, 2012. (2018 paperback)
“Chinese Ships at Nagasaki.” The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Accessed December 12, 2024. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/77014.