Welcome to our Virtual Museum Project, written and compiled by Luca Steinert and Jon Krikorian. We will be exploring the development of Buddhism through early Japan and using images from The Metropolitan Museum of Modern Art Bulletin of artifacts.
Buddhism was introduced to Japan from Korea and China during the Asuka period (c. 538-710). According to historical records, the Korean kingdom of Baekje sent a mission to Japan with images/statue of Buddha, scriptures, and a priest. This event is sometimes known as the “Buddhist Mission from Baekje”. Japan at the time was Shinto, and Buddhism met some initial resistance from both native Shinto priests and factions of the Japanese court. But after much debate over the fear of disrupting traditional religious practices, reports of Buddhism’s positive success in China and Korea influenced the decision. The attractiveness of Buddhism to many “Japanese aristocrats is hardly surprising, since it came with a comprehensive rhetoric about an afterlife, and other aspects of the spiritual world, of greater sophistication than previously available in the local cults (Shinto)” (p. 136, Japan Emerging).
One of the early champions of Buddhism during this time was Empress Suiko who ascended the throne in 59. Along the East Asian trading route, Mahayana Buddhism began integrating itself with Japan. During this time, Prince Shotoku (c. 574-622), regent of the Soga clan was pivotal in the early developments of Japanese Buddhism, incorporating it at a state-level and promoting the translation of Buddhist texts, encouraging the study of Buddhist scripture, and the building of temples. “Yet there was some resistance as well, and in 587 a war broke out between the pro-Buddhist Soga, of Korean descent, and pro-Shinto families such as the Mononobe. Although the conflict has come down to later generations as a war between the two faiths, it was in reality a conflict between aristocrats who wished to create a centralised state, much with the help of Buddhism, and local clans that wished to maintain greater independence, a stance that could be supported by beliefs in local kami. The Soga won, and Buddhist complexes were constructed in central Japan, often adjacent to local shrines, which indicates a lack of doctrinal opposition between Buddhism and local deities” (p. 135, Japan Emerging).
The Nara Period (710-794) saw the imperial capital move from Asuka to Nara. And for the next 75 or so years, Nara became the capital and seat of government. The period flowered with culture, most specifically Buddhist culture, and emperors during this time engaged in Buddhist faith. Emperor Shomu infused Buddhism into Japan during his reign, and built provincial temples, known as kokubunji. This meant that every province had to have a monastery (kokubunji), which had to be a seven-story pagoda housing a statue of Shakyammuni Buddha, and that each province must have a nunnery (kokubun niji), to house the 10 nuns that must live there alongside the 20 monks. He also constructed the Todai Temple as the capital kokubunji and installed a massive bronze figure of Vairochana Buddha to act as the supreme guardian deity of the nation.
By the seventh century the ‘religion’ was firmly established, and Japan had dozens of temples across the country with accompanying priests and staff required. Emperor Kammu relocated the capital to Heian-kyo in 794 marking a shift in Japanese governance and culture. In the early Heian period (~c. 794), Tantric Buddhism or Vajrayana/Esoteric Buddhism made its introduction to Japan, and with it its deities, secrets, mystical rituals etc… It continued to evolve in the new capital located in modern day Kyoto, with various forms of Buddhism being practiced from the capital to the surrounding areas. Towards the end of the Heian Period, Pure Land Buddhism made a rise to popularity due to its appeal to the common people. It was during this time that Kukai and Saicho were selected to be on a mission to China in 804. Kukai left China “with a large number of Buddhist texts, mandalas (cosmic paintings used in esoteric Buddhist meditation), and books of poetry” (p. 138), and he looked to establish his own school, Shingon (True Word). While Saicho looked to return and establish his Tendai Lotus school, which is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition with significant esoteric elements. It combined the elements of Pure Land Buddhism (a branch of Mahayana Buddhism) and Esoteric Buddhism, emphasizing the Lotus Sutra teachings and meditation practice.
Buddhism underwent significant transformation and development during the Kamakura period. The Kamakura period marked the end of the courtly age and the rise of the samurai warriors as a new ruling class. Previously, the Tendai and Shingon schools worked together for influence and patronage of the court but new Buddhist groups emerged, and a period of conflict ensued. The three main new movements and schools in Kamakura Buddhism was Pureland Buddhism, Nichiren Buddhism, and Zen Buddhism. This period saw Buddhism become more accessible to the general population which included samurai, merchants, and farmers. The older esoteric schools also adapted their teachings to appeal to ordinary people.
During the Ashikaga period (1336-1573), also known as the Muromachi period, Buddhism built on the foundations laid during the Kamakura period and evolved in response to political changes, cultural growth, and societal needs. Zen Buddhism, particulalry the Rinzai sect, flourished during this time as the shogunate supported Zen temples liek Tenryu-ji, which became centers of art, culture, and leanring. Ink painting, Ikebana, and Rock gardens become common in this time due to Zen’s emphasis on aesthetics. The Ashikaga period solidified Zen Buddhism’s role in Japanese culture, embedding its aesthetic values in art and daily life. This set the stage for further religious transformations.
Buddhism in the late Warring States period (1467-1603) to the Tokugawa period (1603-1868) was shaped by feudal wars, the rise of centfralised authority under the Tokugawa shogunate, and increasing conflict with the outside world which required it to adapted to the rapidly changing political and social environement. Buddhist temples, particularly Jodo Shinshu sects, establishsed fortified temple towns to protect their followers and religious interests during a decline of monastic power which saw continuous warfare and the ries of secular feudal lords. The temple on Mount Hiei was a indication of the weakened dominance of older schools like the Tendai school. But Nichiren Buddhism still continued to gain traction among the samurai and commoners.
The early Tokugawa period saw a shift in the relationship between Buddhism and the state. Under Tokugawa rule, Buddhism was incorporated in the state’s governance system, and every household was required to register with a Buddhist temple. All the major sectss consilidates their positions under the Tokugawa framework, and Zen Buddhism saw a great rise helped by the samurai elites.
Here we see one of the most significant Buddhist paintings to ever leave Japan. In 1991, The Cleveland Museum of Art acquired the painting, a fourteenth-century hanging scroll, painted on silk. It depicts a golden Buddha presiding over a golden realm, offering a visual representation of the core teachings of the Pure Land tradition. This painting is based on a Chinese tapestry and is often referred to as the Taima Mandala, named after the Taima-dara Temple where the original is located near Nara, Japan. A mandala represents the Pure Land or Buddha-field of Amida Buddha. The term generally refers to sacred geometric diagram used in Esoteric Buddhism rituals. The mandala often symbolises Amida’s western Pure Land, and serves as a meditative tool, helping practitioners focus on the aspiration for rebirth in the Pure Land where the journey toward Buddhood may continue. However, the Tiama Mandala is more accurately described in Japanese as hensozu, meaning a transformed vision; a visual expression of Buddhist doctrine. Still, it is referred to as a mandala as it is a representation of a sacred realm where devotees can spiritually experience enlightenment.
Grotennuis, Elizabeth ten. “Visions of a Transcendent Realm: Pure Land Images in the Cleveland Museum of Art.” The Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art 78, no. 7 (1991): 274–300. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25161334.
This early 14th-century hanging scroll vividly portrays Amida Buddha seated on a throne, surrounded by his attendants. Amida, the central and largest figure, is shown with characteristic Buddhist iconography, including the gesture of teaching, which signifies his role in guiding beings toward enlightenment. The mandala is designed with a geometric structure, reflecting the ordered nature of the Pure Land, where followers aspire to be reborn after death. In this sacred realm, the devotee is believed to receive Amida’s grace, leading them toward ultimate enlightenment, free from the suffering and distractions of the earthly world. The Taima Mandala, based on a Chinese prototype from the 8th century, serves as both a meditation tool and a visual representation of the spiritual journey in Pure Land Buddhism.
Grotennuis, Elizabeth ten. “Visions of a Transcendent Realm: Pure Land Images in the Cleveland Museum of Art.” The Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art 78, no. 7 (1991): 274–300. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25161334.
https://www.clevelandart.org/art/1961.48
Lee, Sherman E. “Nikkō, the Sun Bodhisattva.” The Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art 48, no. 10 (1961): 259–65. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25142478.]
Nikko, depicted, is the Sun Bodhisattva. This sculpture is an astonishingly beautiful and exemplary piece of Japanese Buddhist art from around 800 A.D.. Nikko is one of the two attendant Bodhisattvas commonly placed alongside Yakushi Nyorai (the Healing Buddha), and Gakko (the Moon Bodhisattva) as the third member of the trio. This is a Japanese Yew Wood wooden statue, with clear influence from the Tang dynastic style that was popular at the time. Nikko is depicted seated in a meditative pose wearing elaborate drapery, serene facial expression, and the gold disk around his head marking him as a divine figure. This was a product of a transitional phase between earlier Tempyo and early Konin period works. The Nikko Bodhisattva is a masterpiece that combines Tang styles with new Japanese spiritual ideals. The wood carving technique is exquisite, and especially notable for its attention to detail, such as the intricate drapes and the rendering of everything else. It is a pinnacle of ninth-century Japanese Buddhist sculpture, blending material, faith, and artistic mastery into a piece of symbol and art,
https://unframed.lacma.org/2011/04/20/new-acquisition-heian-period-head-of-a-buddha
This large Buddha head was originally part of an eight-foot-tall seated figure, likely representing Amida, the ruler of the Western Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss. Carved from cypress wood, the head is lacquered in black and gilded with gold leaf, though only traces of the gold remain. It features the essential attributes of a Buddha: a crystal Urna on the forehead, symbolizing infinite light, 656 tightly arranged curls of hair, and elongated ears, signifying the Buddha’s ability to hear the suffering of all beings. The head is considered the most important part of a Buddha statue, as it conveys the figure’s spiritual essence—its power, wisdom, and compassion. The sculpting method used for this head is known as wari-hagi-zukuri, a technique commonly seen in 11th-century Japanese Buddhist art. This method involves carving the head from a single block of wood, then splitting it vertically behind the ears to create two halves. Each half is hollowed out and then rejoined, resulting in a lighter sculpture that is less prone to cracking from drying. This piece is dated to 1000–1050 AD, during the Heian period (794-1185). There are three other similar Buddha heads from this era, all of which are housed in Japanese Buddhist temples and designated as National Treasures. However, this particular sculpture is considered superior in both condition and artistic quality.
Second half of 13th century. Represented as a humble Buddhist monk, Jizō Bosatsu (or Ksitigarbha, meaning “Earth Womb” in Sanskrit) is one of the most beloved and recognizable figures in the Buddhist pantheon. Unlike most bodhisattvas, he is depicted without the crown and jewels typically associated with higher deities, embodying instead a serene, compassionate presence. His worship, which originated in Central Asia, arrived in Japan during the 8th century and grew especially prominent during the Kamakura period, closely linked with the teachings of the Pure Land sects. Although Jizō assumed many roles—such as protector of travelers, children, and women in childbirth—he is perhaps most venerated for his compassionate intervention on behalf of the suffering souls in hell, one of the Six Realms of Existence in Buddhist cosmology. In this context, Jizō is portrayed with an open, gentle expression, ready to hear the calls of those in torment. His staff, adorned with six rings, symbolizes his mercy extending across all realms of being, with the sound of the rings signaling his careful step to avoid causing harm to even the smallest creature. This statue exemplifies the idealized sculptural style that was often employed to convey the compassionate ethos of Pure Land Buddhism. With his warm, youthful features, Jizō’s face invites trust and faith—qualities believed to lead followers to salvation. His robes, gently flowing and finely detailed with gold-leaf designs, enhance the figure’s impression of elegance and refinement, perfectly embodying the spiritual grace and warmth for which Jizō is so revered.
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/42589
Ford, Barbara Brennan. “The Arts of Japan.” The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 45, no. 1 (1987): 1–56. https://doi.org/10.2307/3259426.
Jon Krikorian
The Great Statue of Amida Buddha at Kamakura
Great Buddha (Daibutsu), Kamakura by John La Farge, 1887: This is the Great Buddha viewed from a garden at the side of a temple. The bronze statue was built in the Kamakura period, 1185–1333 and is one of the most famous symbols of Buddhism in Japan. It is over 13 meters tall and originally sat inside a temple building. Later, it was shifted to a temple, which was demolished by storms and earthquakes in the 15th century. The statue has remained outdoors since then.
The Great Buddha is a figure of Amida Buddha, the main figure of Pure Land Buddhism. This school became popular during the Kamakura period due to such a fact that it provided hope for people during such a time of war and political instability. Pure Land Buddhism taught that one’s way to salvation could be realized by believing in Amida Buddha. It was thus easily available to anyone, from commoners down to samurai. The calm and serene expression on the statue thus reflects this promise of peace and hope even in difficult times.
La Farge’s watercolor piece depicts the statue and surroundings in an especially beautiful way. The soft colors and gentle strokes give the Buddha an air of peacefulness, blending with trees and sky alike. It is not only a religious icon but also part of Japanese culture and nature. The painting reminds viewers of the persistent presence of Buddhism throughout Japan’s history and its ability to continue to inspire people today.
Artist: John La Farge (American, New York 1835–1910 Providence, Rhode Island). “The Great Statue of Amida Buddha at Kamakura, Known as the Daibutsu, from the Priest’s Garden.” The Great Statue of Amida Buddha at Kamakura, Known as the Daibutsu, from the Priest’s Garden [66.143], Watercolor and gouache on off-white wove paper, 1887. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, JSTOR, https://jstor.org/stable/community.18412458. Accessed 10 Dec. 2024.
Zojoji Temple at Shiba in Snow
This is the woodblock print Zojoji Temple at Shiba in Snow by Utagawa Hiroshige, a preeminent artist of the Edo period (1797-1858). Hiroshige is renowned for his minutely detailed and atmospheric landscapes, and this print is no exception, capturing as it does a significant Buddhist temple in Edo (modern Tokyo), Zojoji Temple. The scene shows the grounds of the temple covered in snow, accentuating its serene and spiritual atmosphere.
The Zojoji Temple was one of the major centers of Buddhist practice during the Tokugawa shogunate. As the family temple of the Tokugawa clan, it symbolized the close relationship between Buddhism and the political elite of the Edo period. The temple belonged to the Jodo sect of Pure Land Buddhism, which focused on devotion to Amida Buddha and the promise of salvation.
The soft colors used by Hiroshige and the contrast between the snow-covered trees and the temple architecture bring into focus the harmony between nature and spirituality, one of the major themes in Japanese Buddhist art. This print not only shows Hiroshige’s mastery in the use of ukiyo-e but also the continuous importance of Buddhism in the culture and daily life of Edo.
Artist: Utagawa Hiroshige (1797–1858)
Title: Zojoji Temple at Shiba in Snow
Medium: Woodblock print; ink and color on paper
Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, JSTOR, https://jstor.org/stable/community.18693722
Daitoku-ji Temple Tea House (Edo Period)
This is the interior of a tea house at Daitoku-ji Temple in Kyoto from the Edo period (17th–19th century). The Daitoku-ji complex is a well-known and important Zen Buddhist temple which has played a great influence on Japanese culture, as can be seen with such things as the tea ceremony to which it relates through Zen philosophy. The simplicity and beauty of the teahouse testify to the Zen ideals of awareness, self-control, and compatibility with nature.
It was designed as a facility to perform the ceremony of chanoyu, or Japanese tea, which reached its culmination during the Edo period. Simplicity and spiritual awareness are stressed in the ceremony, largely influenced by the principles of Zen Buddhism. Natural materials, such as wood and tatami mats, along with the view of the outside garden, create an atmosphere conducive to meditation, introspection, and the integration of man and nature.
It represents, furthermore, the wider cultural developments of the Edo period, where Zen Buddhism had an influence on religious practices, on art, on architecture, and even on everyday rituals. This is the integration of spiritual and aesthetic values, therefore being the central part in Zen Buddhist practice during the Tokugawa shogunate.
Source:
Title: Kyoto: Daitoku-ji Temple Tea House
Period: 17th–19th Century (Edo Period)
Medium: Architecture
Archive: Visual Arts Legacy Collection. Artstor, JSTOR
https://jstor.org/stable/community.13918420
Byodoin Temple: Phoenix Hall (Heian Period)
The Phoenix Hall of Byodoin Temple, built in 1052 during the Heian period, is one of Japan’s most celebrated examples of Buddhist architecture. Located in Uji near Kyoto, the temple was originally built as a villa for the powerful Fujiwara clan before it was converted into a Pure Land Buddhist temple. The Phoenix Hall, named for its symmetrical layout and phoenix statues adorning its roof, was designed to represent the Pure Land paradise-a celestial realm promised by Amida Buddha to his followers.
Inside the hall, a statue of Amida Buddha, by the sculptor Jocho, is enshrined. The statue is surrounded by elaborate paintings and sculptures depicting celestial beings welcoming souls to the Pure Land. Reflection of the hall in the surrounding pond enhances its ethereal appearance, symbolizing the bridge between the earthly realm and spiritual paradise.
This architectural jewel epitomizes the stress on elegance, harmony, and religious devotion during the Heian period. The Byodo-in Temple remains a UNESCO World Heritage site and a testament to Japan’s enduring cultural and spiritual legacy regarding Pure Land Buddhism.
Source:
Title: Byodoin Temple (Phoenix Hall)
Period: Heian Period, 1052
Medium: Architecture
Archive: Visual Arts Legacy Collection. Artstor, JSTOR
https://jstor.org/stable/community.13920056